Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) occupy a narrow but intriguing niche in the automotive landscape. In the United States, California remains the sole market where they are sold, with models such as Toyota’s Mirai, Hyundai’s Nexo, and Honda’s Clarity Fuel Cell offering an alternative to battery electric vehicles (BEVs). These “plug-less” EVs can be refueled in under five minutes at specialized stations, delivering ranges that rival or exceed many BEVs. The 2021 Toyota Mirai, for example, achieves an EPA-estimated 402 miles on its XLE trim, while Hyundai’s Nexo reaches 380 miles, and Honda’s Clarity Fuel Cell offers 360 miles. Unlike BEVs, their performance is unaffected by cold weather or accessory use such as heated seats.
Jackie Birdsall, senior engineer on Toyota’s fuel cell team, stated, “Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are superior driving machines compared to traditional vehicles.” Toyota has invested over 25 years in refining the technology, selling or leasing more than 6,500 Mirais in California since 2015. The second-generation Mirai stores more hydrogen than its predecessor, boosting range by 30%.
FCEVs generate electricity onboard by converting hydrogen gas into electrical energy through a fuel cell, producing only water and heat as byproducts. The hydrogen is stored in high-pressure tanks—three in the Mirai’s case—and flows into the tanks during refueling. Keith Malone of the California Fuel Cell Partnership emphasized, “If we can build the stations, we can sell the cars… These vehicles have met all the same safety standards globally. The tanks have undergone armor piercing bullet tests. There are no dangers.” However, Malone acknowledged that fueling infrastructure remains the primary challenge, with most stations concentrated in urban California.
Infrastructure limitations have long hampered hydrogen’s adoption. J.R. DeShazo of UCLA recalled former Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger’s 2004 “Hydrogen Highways” initiative, which failed to deliver a comprehensive network. “If there were stations everywhere, hydrogen would be an obvious solution,” DeShazo noted, but high costs and scale requirements make widespread deployment difficult. As of late 2020, California had 42 hydrogen fueling stations, not all operational, with hydrogen priced around $16 per kilogram compared to $3.18 per gallon of gasoline.
Industry skepticism persists. John Voelcker, former editor of Green Car Reports, wrote, “Despite more than half a century of development, starting in 1966 with GM’s Electrovan, hydrogen fuel-cell cars remain low in volume, expensive to produce, and restricted to sales in the few countries or regions that have built hydrogen fueling stations.” He added, “Absolutely not,” when asked if hydrogen represented the automotive future, citing the tens of billions required for industrial-scale fueling networks and the greenhouse gas emissions from non-renewable hydrogen production. “If the goal is reducing climate change gas per mile driven, electricity is simply better at doing that,” Voelcker said.
Automaker strategies diverge sharply. Audi’s CEO Markus Duesmann stated, “We will not be able to produce sufficient quantities of the hydrogen required for propulsion in the next few decades in a CO2-neutral manner. I therefore do not believe in hydrogen for use in cars.” Volkswagen’s Herbert Diess similarly dismissed hydrogen for passenger cars. In contrast, BMW planned an X5 SUV with a second-generation hydrogen fuel cell powertrain by 2022, and General Motors, partnering with Honda, remained “committed to fuel cells as a complement to battery-electric propulsion,” producing fuel cells in Michigan and supplying systems for Nikola’s heavy-duty trucks.
Honda has sold 1,617 Clarity Fuel Cell vehicles in nearly four years, pursuing multiple zero-emission pathways. Toyota is collaborating with officials, NGOs, utilities, and energy companies to expand hydrogen access, with new stations emerging in the Northeast and plans for Colorado, Oregon, Washington, and Texas. For 2021 Mirai buyers, Toyota offers $15,000 in free hydrogen—enough for approximately 67,000 miles—helping offset the $90 cost to fill its 5.6-kilogram tank. Birdsall summarized Toyota’s approach: “We don’t want to put all our eggs in one basket. Both BEVs and hydrogen fuel cells are the future.”